Public School Finance

, by Alexander, Kern; Salmon, Richard G.

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ISBN: 9780205166312 | 0205166318
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 2/7/1995

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This book is designed as a "building-block approach to understanding the financing of public schools in the U.S. The philosophical and historical basis for financing public schools is presented and integrated with the economic rationale for public investment in education.

Preface

xiii

The Nature Of The Public School System

(15)

Introduction

(6)

Common Schools

(1)

A System of Schools

(1)

Equality of Opportunity

(2)

The Public School Ideal

(1)

Historical Basis for Public Schools

(1)

Ye Olde Deluder Satan

(1)

Church Schools and Rate Bills

(1)

Evolution of Tax Support for Public Schools

(3)

Public Education for Liberty

(1)

Advocates for Public Schools

(1)

Public School Expansion

(1)

The Forgotten Man

(1)

Structural Issues Today

(1)

Public School Precepts

(1)

Summary and Conclusions

(1)

Key Terms

(1)

Endnotes

(2)

Legal Aspects of Educational Finance

(30)

Introduction

(4)

Power to Tax

(2)

Types of Taxes to Be Levied

(1)

Federal Funds and Control

(1)

Federal-State Powers

(1)

Disabled Children

(1)

Superemacy of Federal Law

(1)

Establishment of Religion

(12)

Dismantling the Wall

(2)

Equality and Uniformity of Taxation

(1)

The School Finance Cases

(2)

Federal Equal Protection

(1)

State Equal Protection

(4)

Education Clauses in State Constitutions

(3)

Summary and Conclusions

(2)

Key Terms

(1)

Endnotes

(8)

Status of State School Finance Constitutional Litigation

(3)

School Finance Case Citations by State

(2)

Education As an Investments in Human Capital

(34)

Introduction

(1)

Education and Economic Growth

(1)

Classical Economic View

(2)

Human Capital Approach

(1)

Human Resources and the Wealth of Nations

(1)

Absorption Effect

(1)

Skill Acquisition

(1)

Measuring the Benefits of Education

(11)

Relationship Analysis Approach

(1)

Residual Approach

(3)

Cash-Value Approach

(2)

Cost-Benefit Approach

(5)

Returns on Education Investment

(4)

Primary School

(1)

Secondary School

(1)

Bachelor's Degree

(1)

Graduate Education

(1)

Vocational Education

(1)

External Benefits to Investment in Education

(8)

Increased Labor Productivity

(2)

The Educated Workforce

(1)

Reduced Need for Other Services

(1)

Health

(1)

Crime Reduction

(2)

Welfare

(1)

Social Consciousness and Intergenerational Transfers

(1)

The Household

(1)

Educated Mothers

(1)

Women in the Labor Force

(2)

Summary and Conclusions

(1)

Key Terms

(1)

Endnotes

(5)

Trends in Demand and Support for the Public Schools

(17)

Introduction

(2)

Concepts of Need and Demand

(2)

Trends in Population, Public School Enrollment, and Average Daily Attendance

(3)

Trends in Total Public School Expenditures

(2)

Trends in Average Salaries Paid to Instructional Personnel

(3)

Benefits from Increased Educational Expenditures

(2)

Income Elasticity of Demand for Education

(1)

Factors Affecting Demands for Education

(2)

Effect of a Stagnant National Economy

(1)

Effect of a Large National Budget Deficit

(1)

Effect of Changes in the Pattern of Skills and Abilities

(1)

Effect of an Aging Population and Rising Health Care Costs

(1)

Summary and Conclusions

(1)

Key Terms

(1)

Endnotes

(1)

Taxation for Public Schools

(18)

Introduction

(9)

Property Taxes

(5)

Individual Income Taxes

102

(1)

Corporation Income Taxes

103

(1)

Other Taxes

104

(1)

Possible New Taxes

105

(1)

Tax Reform Limitations and Exemptions

106

(5)

Proposition 13

107

(1)

Property Tax Control Points

108

(2)

Tax Exemptions

110

(1)

Summary and Conclusions

111

(1)

Key Terms

112

(1)

Endnotes

112

(3)

Tax Revenues and Fairness of Burden

115

(17)

Introduction

115

(1)

Sources of Tax Revenues

115

(4)

Types of Taxes Collected

116

(1)

Recent Trends in Types of Taxes Collected

117

(1)

Recent Trends in Tax Collections by Level of Government

118

(1)

Decline of Federal Tax Effort for Public Schools

119

(1)

Fairness of the Tax System

120

(5)

State Taxes

120

(2)

Federal Taxes

122

(3)

Tax Revenues and Fairness of the Burden

125

(5)

Summary and Conclusions

130

(1)

Key Terms

130

(1)

Endnotes

130

(2)

Inequality in Educational Opportunity

132

(25)

Introduction

132

(1)

Inequalities in Opportunity

132

(1)

The Morality of Equality

133

(6)

Self-Evident Truth

133

(1)

Public Education: The Bosom of Equality

134

(1)

Helping One's Self

134

(1)

The Invisible Hand

135

(1)

Harmony of Interests

135

(1)

Social Darwinism

136

(1)

Moral Man

136

(1)

Of Cakes and Shares

137

(1)

Equal Shares and Fair Shares

137

(1)

Relevant Differences

137

(1)

Helping the Least Advantaged

138

(1)

Inequality among Nations

139

(3)

Inequality in Education Tracks Inequality in Income

140

(2)

Inequalities within the United States

142

(6)

Coming Apart

143

(2)

Equality of Educational Opportunity

145

(1)

Inequalities among States

145

(1)

Inequalities within States

146

(1)

Enclaves of Affluence

146

(2)

Inequalities within Local School Systems

148

(1)

Reasons for Inequalities in Opportunity

148

(4)

Inadequate School Districts

149

(1)

Small Schools

149

(1)

Differences in Fiscal Capacity and Fiscal Effort

150

(1)

Unsound Legal and Financial Provisions

151

(1)

Politics of Inequality

151

(1)

Summary and Conclusions

152

(2)

Key Terms

154

(1)

Endnotes

154

(3)

Fiscal Capacity and Effort to Support Public Schools

157

(34)

Introduction

157

(1)

Fiscal Capacity

157

(4)

Fiscal Capacity of Nations

158

(3)

Measurement of State Fiscal Capacity

161

(6)

Personal Income

161

(1)

Tax Revenues

162

(1)

Representative Tax System

162

(1)

Per-Capita Fiscal Capacity Comparisons among States

163

(4)

Measurement of Local Fiscal Capacity

167

(7)

Pros and Cons of the Economic-Indicator Approach

171

(1)

Equalized Assessment of Property Valuation

172

(2)

Fiscal Effort to Support Public Schools

174

(10)

Local Fiscal Effort to Schools Districts

184

(2)

Summary and Conclusions

186

(2)

Key Terms

188

(1)

Endnotes

188

(3)

Structure of State Systems of School Finance

191

(41)

Introduction

191

(2)

Fiscal Equalization and State Grants

193

(2)

Formula Design Decisions

194

(1)

Design of State-Aid Programs

195

(2)

Nonequalization Grants

197

(1)

Flat Grants

197

(3)

Equalization Programs

200

(10)

Foundation Program

200

(3)

Guaranteed Tax Yield/Base Programs

203

(2)

Percentage-Equalization Program

205

(2)

District-Power Equalization

207

(2)

Tier Program

209

(1)

Full State Funding

210

(2)

Accommodation of Vertical Equity

212

(10)

Determination of Educational Needs

212

(1)

Determining the Number of Potential Pupil Clients

212

(1)

Determining the Percentage of Clients Served

213

(1)

Determining the Extent That Goals and Objectives Are Met

213

(1)

Computation of Cost Differentials

213

(4)

Weighting for Educationally Disadvantaged and At-Risk Children

217

(1)

Weighting of Programs for Disabled Children

217

(2)

Weighting for Limited-English-Speaking Children

219

(1)

Computing the Cost of Pupil Transportation

220

(1)

School Food Services

221

(1)

Other Items of Current Expense

222

(1)

Radical School Finance Alternatives

222

(4)

Choice: Private Schools

222

(2)

Choice: Public Schools

224

(1)

Vouchers

224

(1)

Tuition Tax Credits

225

(1)

Objections to Private Choice, Vouchers, and Tuition Tax Credits

226

(3)

Social Cohesion

226

(1)

Parental Limitation

226

(1)

Class Orientation

227

(1)

Separation of Church and State

227

(1)

Equity

228

(1)

Segregation

228

(1)

Summary and Conclusions

229

(1)

Key Terms

229

(1)

Endnotes

230

(2)

The Measurement of Equity

232

(14)

Introduction

232

(1)

Preparation of State Data Base

232

(2)

Measurement of Horizontal and Vertical Equity

234

(4)

Range

235

(1)

Restricted Range

235

(1)

Restricted Range Ratio

235

(1)

Federal Range Ratio

236

(1)

Coefficient of Variation

236

(1)

Lorenz Curve and Gini Coefficient

236

(1)

McLoone Index

237

(1)

Theil Index

237

(1)

Atkinson Index

238

(1)

Measurement of Fiscal Neutrality (Taxpayer Equity)

238

(1)

Correlation

238

(1)

Regression

238

(1)

Slope

239

(1)

Elasticity

239

(1)

Application of Horizontal and Vertical Equity Statistics to the Ohio System of School Finance

239

(2)

Application of Fiscal Neutrality Statistics to the Ohio System of School Finance

241

(1)

Intrastate Comparisons of Horizontal Equity, 1980-1990

241

(2)

Summary and Conclusions

243

(1)

Key Terms

243

(1)

Endnotes

243

(3)

The Measurement of Equity in School Finance Formulas for Revenue-Disparity Measures

244

(1)

Rhode Island Data Set; Application of Horizontal and Vertical Equity Statistics to Rhode Island Data Base; Application of Fiscal Neutrality Statistics to Rhode Island Data Base

245

(1)

The Politics of School Finance

246

(26)

Introduction

246

(5)

The Political Pendulum

246

(1)

Coloration of Politics

247

(1)

Nature of Politics

248

(3)

Purposes of Politics

251

(3)

Politics of Security

251

(1)

Politics of Stability

251

(2)

Politics of Change

253

(1)

Political Reality

254

(14)

Condition of the Economy

254

(1)

Shaping of Attitudes

255

(1)

Politics of Religion

256

(3)

Urban-Suburban Politics

259

(2)

Politics of Race

261

(3)

Politics at the Local Level

264

(1)

Politics at the State Level

265

(3)

Summary and Conclusions

268

(1)

Key Terms

269

(1)

Endnotes

270

(2)

The Federal Role in Financing Education

272

(34)

Introduction

272

(1)

Federal Aid Criteria

273

(7)

Current Political Realities of General Federal Aid

274

(1)

Division of Power among Governments

275

(2)

The General Welfare Clauses of the Constitution

277

(1)

Limitations on Congress

278

(1)

Limitations on the State

278

(2)

Historical Development of Federal Aid

280

(8)

Early Land Grants

280

(5)

The Morrill Act

285

(1)

The Smith-Lever Act

286

(1)

The Smith-Hughes Act

286

(1)

Other Important Federal Legislation Affecting Education

287

(1)

ESEA and IDEA

288

(5)

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)

289

(3)

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

292

(1)

Trends in Federal Funding

293

(2)

Equalizing Tendencies of Federal Funds

295

(4)

Elementary and Secondary School Equalization

296

(2)

Status of Federal Funding

298

(1)

The Future of Federal Funding

299

(3)

Choice: Vouchers and Tuition Tax Credits

299

(1)

Youth Apprenticeship

299

(1)

Goals for 2000

300

(1)

Children at Risk

300

(1)

Fiscal Equity

301

(1)

Summary and Conclusions

302

(1)

Key Terms

303

(1)

Endnotes

303

(3)

Personnel Policies and Teacher Salaries

306

(27)

Introduction

306

(1)

Policies Relating to Personnel and Finance

307

(6)

Factors Affecting Personnel and Financial Policies

308

(1)

Supply and Demand

309

(4)

Economic Status of Teachers

313

(1)

Trends in Teacher Salaries

313

(6)

Interprofessional Salary Comparisons

314

(1)

International Teachers' Salaries

315

(3)

Purchasing Power Parity

318

(1)

Interstate Comparisons of Teachers' Salaries

319

(2)

Determination of Local School District Salary Policy

321

(1)

Trends in Developing Local Salary Schedules

321

(2)

Other Economic Benefits

323

(1)

Salaries of Administrative and Supervisory Staff

323

(1)

Merit Pay

324

(5)

Career Ladders

326

(1)

Salary Adjustments Based on a Cost-of-Living Index

326

(1)

Salaries of Noncertified Personnel

327

(2)

Summary and Conclusions

329

(1)

Key Terms

330

(1)

Endnotes

330

(3)

Fianacing Capital Outlay

333

(16)

Introduction

333

(3)

Financing Capital Facilities: Local Options

336

(3)

Current Revenues

336

(1)

Building Reserve Funds

337

(1)

General Obligation Bonds

337

(2)

Financing Capital Facilities: State Options

339

(7)

Complete State Support

340

(1)

Equalization Grants

340

(2)

Percentage-Matching

342

(1)

Flat Grants

343

(1)

Loans

343

(1)

Building Authorities

344

(1)

Persistent Fiscal Problems in Financing Capital Facilities

345

(1)

Characteristics of Equitable State Capital-Outlay Programs

346

(1)

Summary and Conclusions

347

(1)

Key Terms

347

(1)

Endnotes

348

(1)

Education Production Functions and Whether Money Matters

349

(18)

Introduction

349

(3)

Implications for School Finance Policy

351

(1)

Does Money Matter?

351

(1)

The Concept of Production Functions

352

(7)

The Industrial Model

352

(1)

The Education Model

352

(1)

Comparison of the Models

353

(1)

Returns to Scale

353

(1)

Substitutability

354

(1)

The Cost Side of the Equation

355

(1)

Human Variables

355

(1)

Time as a Cumulative Variable

355

(1)

Teacher Differences

356

(1)

Attenuated Data

356

(1)

Sequence of Inputs

357

(1)

Threshold Effect

357

(1)

Variations in Variables

357

(1)

Statistical Procedures and Problems

358

(1)

Experimental Conditions

359

(1)

Model Specifications

359

(1)

The Coleman Report's Flawed Data and Analysis

359

(2)

Other Production-Function Studies

361

(1)

Improvement of Production-Function Studies

362

(1)

Summary and Conclusions

363

(1)

Key Terms

364

(1)

Endnotes

364

(3)

Index

367

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Public School Finance

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials